Nested functions

Functions in python are first-class objects. They can be defined in any scope

def fibonacci(n):
    def step(a,b):
        return b, a+b
    a, b = 0, 1
    for i in range(n):
        a, b = step(a, b)
    return a

Functions capture their enclosing scope can be passed around like any other sort of object

def make_adder(n):
    def adder(x):
        return n + x
    return adder
add5 = make_adder(5)
add6 = make_adder(6)
add5(10)
#Out: 15
add6(10)
#Out: 16

def repeatedly_apply(func, n, x):
    for i in range(n):
        x = func(x)
    return x

repeatedly_apply(add5, 5, 1)
#Out: 26

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